Elephant Toothpaste-A Way to Prank a Co-Worker?

Another fun reaction that is a favourite demo of chemists is termed "Elephant Toothpaste". This experiment is fairly simple. 

What you need:

A graduated cylinder

30% solution of hydrogen peroxide (note: household hydrogen peroxide is 3% solution)

Potassium Iodide-KI (either solid or saturated solution)

Dish soap

Food colouring (a minty green is where the "toothpaste" moniker comes from.)

The potassium iodide is used as a catalyst-it starts the reaction, but is not consumed in the reaction. The actual chemical reaction that happens is the break down of the hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen very rapidly, accompanied by the production of heat. 

2 H2O2 ----> 2 H2O + O2

In the graduated cylinder, you mix the soap, the hydrogen peroxide, and the food colouring. Then very carefully add the potassium iodide. The oxygen gas produced causes the soap to foam up rapidly and make a huge mess to the delight of many (except those who have to clean it up). 

This particular reaction has obtained pop culture notoriety by being used on the Big Bang Theory as a method of revenge. Check it out: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-pUeOAit7zI 

The amount of foam produced on their kitchen counter is absolutely not exaggerated, which is what makes the demo so cool. 

There is one small thing in this scene, however, that bugs me every time I see it and therefore feel I should mention it now. Sheldon, while wearing latex gloves (which you should wear if you handle these chemicals-serious burns can arise from 30% H2O2. Just think about the sting 3% gives you.) picks up a glass of Mountain Dew and drinks it. This is just terrible and upsetting lab protocol. There is dangerous chemicals on those gloves and all around, and he's bringing them to his mouth! That is a great way to ingest something that may kill you rapidly. It makes me cringe to watch. I guess you shouldn't expect better from a physicist.   

A Chemist's April Fools' Joke: Nitrogen Triiodide

I was recently asked about interesting chemical reactions and so I started thinking about a few fun demonstrations that we like to do during National Chemistry Week, or at the University's Open House. Which brought me to nitrogen triiodide.

Nitrogen triiodide (NI3) is a contact explosive. There are many types of explosions and explosive materials, but I will focus on chemical explosives. An explosion is characterised by the rapid increase in volume and release of energy. This is also accompanied by the production of heat, light, sound, and pressure (the shock wave-this is the part of an explosion that does the damage). Generally explosions produce gasses, this is because the production of gasses is an extremely thermodynamically favourable (see blog entry A Diamond is Forever...Or Maybe Not) process. Explosions are detonated by the application of energy. In the case of a contact explosive, only very small amounts of energy need to be applied to the material. This energy can be in the form of heat, light, sound, or physical pressure. 

Nitrogen triiodide is very sensitive as it produces nitrogen gas and iodine, which are way more stable compounds and therefore results in a huge release of energy. It also produces a sound reminiscent of a gunshot. It does, however, leave purple stains due to the iodine. This compound is actually so sensitive that brushing it lightly with a feather can cause an explosion. The sound produced by the explosion can actually cause subsequent explosions of the compound to occur. I think the following video shows it best:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KlAf936E90 

A great practical joke is to place this on the underside of toilet seats or in the key holes of doors. Small amounts of course. Just to scare people. (Please note: the author of this blog is not recommending that you try this at home.) 

Ask a Chemist!

Hello loyal followers! This is just a request for more questions. I am putting the plea out there. I want to make sure that your questions get answered so please make sure that you are leaving your questions in the comments. To keep this blog going I need your science questions!

Thanks!

Careful of the Icy Patch!

In the winter time, as hardy Canadians, we pour salt onto the icy patches on the sidewalks to keep people from slipping and preventing litigation. But ever wondered why salt? What does the salt do? Well I shall explain this by introducing the concept of "colligative properties".

A colligative property is one where by introducing an impurity of some sort (this is often called the solute) the properties of the solution are changed. What makes a colligative property different from other chemical properties is that a colligative property is only dependent on the number of added impurity molecules, not the type of molecule.

The important colligative property that we need here in Canada during the winter time is: Freezing Point Depression. When you add an impurity, such as salt or sand or antifreeze (ethylene glycol) to a solution of water (or that icy patch on your front walk) the result is that the freezing point of the water becomes lower. This means that even though it is -15 C outside, the ice on your walkway stays liquid. And because freezing point depression is a colligative property, it doesn't make a difference what kind of additive you put on the icy patch. All will cause the freezing point to become depressed. The amount that the freezing point lowers is solely dependent on the amount added, not what is added. 

Freezing point depression is used in undergraduate chemistry labs the world over as a means to determine the purity of the products that they were supposed to isolate. If they have a pure compound then the freezing point should be nice and sharp, and agree with literature standards. If they have an impure compound then their freezing point will be much lower than the standards.  

Another example of a colligative property is Boiling Point Elevation. When you are making pasta and you add a little salt to the water, this does not make the water boil sooner (contrary to what my ninth grade science teacher taught me) it actually raises the temperature that the water boils at. 

Reference:
Laidler, K. J.; Meiser, J. H.; Sanctuary, B. C. Physical Chemistry 4th ed. 2003; Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.

A Diamond is Forever...Or Maybe Not

"A diamond is forever" is a phrase synonymous with one of the most successful advertising campaigns in history. This has been the slogan De Beers has used since 1948 to promote the sale of diamonds to couples world wide. It even inspired an adventure of Ian Flemming's 007. De Beers also has told us that diamonds are rare and exceptionally beautiful, neither of which is true. This leads to the question: are diamonds actually forever? Or is this another myth? Are diamonds a stable chemical compound?

Stability: in chemistry stability has a very specific definition. It is determined by the free energy of the product compared with the reactant of a reaction. This is a thermodynamic property. If the free energy of the product is less than the free energy of the reactant, in other words the free energy is a negative value, then the product is considered stable. Now taking a look at two allotopes of carbon (an allotrope is different structural form of the same element): graphite and diamond, we see that by converting diamond into graphite, the free energy is -2.9 KJ/mol. This means that diamonds are higher in energy than graphite, and also means that diamonds are unstable compounds. Hmm starting to look like a diamond is NOT forever.

However, since billions of dollars are tied up in the diamond industry, this must mean that they do not rapidly turn into graphite. This brings us to the concept of lability.

Lability: in chemistry lability describes the speed at which are reaction occurs. This is governed by the activation energy of the reaction. This is a kinetic property. The larger the activation energy, the more energy needed to be put into a reaction to drive it to completion. This is usually accomplished by adding heat to the reaction. In the case of diamonds, there is an extremely large activation energy.  Because of this, diamonds will not be converted into graphite without the addition of an IMMENSE amount of heat. 

So while diamonds are not stable, they are also not labile. This means that De Beers can get away with the slogan "a diamond is forever," even if it is not chemically true because on the time scale of the human lifespan we will never see the conversion to graphite. 

Another example of this that may be important to know during the holiday baking season is table sugar, aka sucrose! Sucrose, by the definitions above, is unstable because upon heating it has free energy of -5650 KJ/mol! But again, sucrose is also not labile and therefore requires the addition of heat. But the activation energy is not nearly as high as it is for diamonds, which is why sugar is so easy to burn: it doesn't require too much heat and causes the release of over 5000 KJ of energy. Keep that in mind before you ever try to microwave icing (I am looking at you Bridget).

References:

Petrucci, R. H.; Harwood, W. S.; Herring, F. G. General Chemistry 8th ed. 2002, Prentice Hall Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Campbell, G. Blood Diamonds 2004, Basic Books, Cambridge, MA.

Gray, T. The Elements 2009, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc. New York, NY.

Today's Blog is Brought to You by the Letter K

K is for potassium. Potassium is element 19 on the periodic table and its symbol arises from Latin for potassium carbonate kalium. (Sodium metal, symbol Na comes from Latin for sodium carbonate natrium.) It has an atomic mass of 39.098 g/mol. It is an alkali metal and is therefore known for its explosive reaction with water. It is actually more reactive than sodium metal and results in pretty purple flames. The K 40 isotope (sorry, I can't seem to publish superscript so this is not the correct notation) is actually radioactive-that's right that banana you had on your Cheerios this morning was radioactive! Of course this is nothing to be concerned about since this stuff is everywhere and is postulated (by Isaac Asimov) to be a contributing factor to our evolution. Please note that only one hundredth of one percent of potassium atoms in the world are actually the radioactive K 40 (which can be figured out by examining the atomic mass; however, since I started this blog for my sister I should probably skip the math lesson.) 

But what I would like to talk about today is K+, the potassium ion. This little guy is very important to life. For plants it is essential for growth, which is why it is included in plant fertilizers. My research has so far has found that the exact role of potassium in plant growth has yet to be defined. It is associated with the movement of water, nutrients, and carbohydrates within the plant, all of these things tied inextricably to plant growth. Research has shown that potassium improves the efficiency of water use in the plant, therefore it is tied to plant stomata, which are the pores through which plants "breathe". It has been found to increase plants' resistance to disease and insects. It also results in early growth, increased production of proteins, and winter-hardy plants (important for Canadian crops). 

In animals, K+ is way cooler. It is involved in nerve transmission through out the body. Animal cell membranes have a Na+/K+ pump: this is the primary transporter on cell membranes. What happens is that the transporter pumps three ions of Na+ outside the cell, and then pumps two ions of K+ inside the cell. This results in a potential energy gradient across the cell membrane. When a nerve impulse is sent, it converts this potential energy into kinetic energy by allowing the ions to flow back down the gradient. (In other words, opposite to the process that established the gradient). When you are low on K+, then the gradient cannot be established, which means that no nerve signals can be sent, and your muscles, usually starting with your fingers, will start to freeze up. Now think about the most important muscle in your body. Hopefully you are thinking of your heart. Imagine what would happen if your heart muscle was low on potassium. It would freeze. This would result in death. So if you start to dip in K+ a great way to get some is by eating a banana. Bananas are very rich in potassium.

References:

Gray, T. The Elements 2009, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc. New York, NY.

Pratt, C. W.; Cornely, K. Essential Biochemistry 2004, Wiley & Sons Inc. Danvers, MA.

Petrucci, R. H.; Harwood, W. S.; Herring, F. G. General Chemistry 8th ed. 2002, Prentice Hall  Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Potassium for Crop Production www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/dc6794.html accessed 11/14/2010.  

Ee is for Endothermic

I was walking through our undergraduate organic chemistry labs the other day and one student noticed that while she was evapourating solvent under vacuum that the flask got quite cold. She asked me why this was. Here is my answer.

Endothermic is the physical term used chemical processes that absorb heat from the environment to proceed. This is opposite to the term exothermic, which are chemical processes that give off heat to the environment as they proceed. In order to for molecules to change state from liquid to gas they require an input of energy. This energy comes from the surrounding environment. If heat leaves the environment and goes into the system you are observing (in this case the from the flask to the solvent), then the environment will become cooler. This is why sweat actually cools your body. As the sweat evapourates from your skin, it takes with it heat leaving you cooler. 

Endothermic reactions are also what take place in those cooling packs. The spontaneous reaction inside is endothermic, taking heat from the surrounding environment and the result is the pack is cold. Exothermic reactions are what are in heat packs. The reaction gives off heat, making the environment hot.  

In Your Cosmetics...What You Don't Know...Still Won't Kill You Pt. 2

This entry is designed to answer the question about chemicals in cosmetics. If you haven't yet read part 1, do so before reading this, because it gives context. What are the issues? Well I think the biggest issue that is leading to all this concern is the large information gap between the public and the scientists. There is a lot of misleading information out there, and from what I have garnered, the major lobby groups are making their cases based on a misreading of study presented in the Journal of Applied Toxicology. Here's the deal: just because something is "chemical" doesn't make it unsafe. As I have said in other entries, we are all chemicals, what eat are chemicals, our world is chemicals. 

So what has people concerned for their cosmetics? Preservatives. Those are the formaldehydes and parabens that are being referred to. They are added to cosmetic products to prevent bacterial growth, which could lead to infection as cosmetics and places in which they are stored (ie, your bathroom) are ideal microbe breeding grounds. Without preservatives, you would have to treat your personal care products like perishable food items, and the result would be contamination. A particular ingredient is made unsafe by the dose or exposure. I think caffeine highlights this nicely because many of don't function without a daily caffeine jolt from tea, coffee, or cola. But have you ever read an MSDS (material safety data sheet-just Google MSDS caffeine)? The LD50, which is the dose at which the compound resulted in the death of 50% of the test population, is 127 mg/Kg (for a rat). To put that in perspective, the LD50 of sodium cyandide is 6.4 mg/Kg, nicotine is 0.3 mg/Kg, ethanol (your vodka martini) is 1200 mg/Kg, and PCBs (which are banned) are 1295 mg/Kg. Formaldehyde (ingested) is 100 mg/Kg. That means that caffeine, which is ingested without compunction, is about the same toxicity as formaldehyde and that is if you ingest formaldehyde. The LD50 for skin absorption of formaldehyde is 270 mg/Kg. 

The public push is for "natural" products. But there is absolutely a danger in this. They are not necessarily safer because natural counterparts are not as well defined, therefore not as well legislated, and can contain many impurities that lead to allergic reactions. I actually have been having problems with eczema (stupid dry weather) and one of the things that the doctors have all told me is to avoid any lotions that contain natural botanicals because my skin is already over sensitive and those chemicals will spur an allergic reaction to make things worse. Also keep in mind that the most poisonous compounds that we know about are all nature made not human made. 

There is a really great article in C&EN Chemical & Engineering News that essentially describes all of this. I have linked it here. I hope you read it and enjoy it. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/88/8820cover.html 

Things you should definitely stay away from are dollarstore made in China cosmetics that still contain lead and arsenic. No good will come of those ones. As for the others, read the actual scientific data that is published, not the data given out by those with an agenda.

In Your Cosmetics...What You Don't Know...Still Won't Kill You Pt. 1

I was asked a great question about David Suzuki and his cosmetic chemical comments, and what should you be concerned about in your cosmetics. This is a great question. I am going to break this up into two separate entries because I need to get on my little soap box here for a minute. This question highlights the huge disconnect that exists between science and the general public. This is a shame, because science is awesome, and makes huge impacts on our everyday lives. 

Part 1 of this entry is concerned with dealing with scienc-y info you come across from the mass media, facebook cult, politicians, and lobbyists. It is very frustrating as a scientist to see one little misused claim cause out right panic over a chemical. So I am going to break down a few things you can do to better understand what the real science issues are and what is the junk. 

1) Consider the source and be skeptical. Who is presenting the data? What research was done and by whom? What is the sources agenda? What are the other sides of the research? Was it peer reviewed?-  These questions will help you sort out how much you should be buying into the claims. If the source is a politician hoping to get through a law for stricter regulations on a chemical, they are going to present any research on the chemical that is negative and leave out the positives. Remember too that news media is a business, therefore they want their stories to sell and what better way to sell then to embellish (just a little) the concerns about the chemical. All credible science will have peer reviewed research to back up any claims they make.

2) Beware of Radicals. I hate radicals, they cause all sorts of problems in chemical reactions, the cause all sorts of problems in the environment, and the cause all sorts of problems in society. Anyone who is so far to one side of an issue as those people who fall into the "radical" category are not known well for presenting all the facts and for having the very best logic-no matter what side of the issue they are on! David Suzuki IS a radical, and he feels that he no longer has to support his claims. Reading his article on cosmetics, I must say I am appalled. He speaks very generally, skirting around what any potential issues are. His link to the "dirty dozen" is extremely misleading. Some points are also incorrect. (I will deal with these in part 2) but it is very important to be aware of that. Where is the research links? Who was it done by? He gives none of this, which going back to point 1 has me skeptical over what he is trying to get across.

3) Correlation does NOT mean CAUSE. This is so important! Many studies are done by correlating two particular data sets eg. Ben & Jerry Sales vs the # of murders, to determine if there may be a relation between the two. Positive correlations mean that, continuing with my example, the number of murders increased as the number of Ben & Jerry Sales increased. A negative correlation means the opposite, the number of murders decreased as the number of Ben & Jerry Sales increased. However, this does not mean that it CAUSED anything. The above example is a true study, often used to illustrate this point. It was found that there is a positive correlation between the number of murders and the sales of Ben & Jerry. Does this mean that eating ice cream will cause you to be a murderer? I think we can all agree that would a pretty ridiculous claim, but you see my point. When a news article says MAY CAUSE (or variations of) that means that a positive correlation was observed, but whether an actual cause exits remains to be seen and is probably under further investigation. It is worth knowing that there is a correlation, but don't jump too quickly to the panic side of things. 

Please check out this link for a laugh and an illustration of my point: The Science News Cycle

A chemical we should all be concerned about is: dihydrogen monoxide. This chemical is a colourless, odourless liquid. In large amounts it is known to cause suffocation. It contains the a hydroxide group, which has been known to form radicals that can cause cancer, and DNA damage. It has been responsible for the destruction of settlements in extremely large amounts. It has been shown to easily erode land, and is often used to dissolve a variety of different chemicals. In its solid form it has been linked to the deaths of thousands. And we are all exposed to large amounts of this chemical EVERYDAY! What is it? Dihydrogen-means two hydrogen atoms. Monoxide-means one oxygen atom. H2O-oh it is WATER! 

The Stomach: Acid-Base Chemistry

What is in the stomach? Good old hydrochloric acid. I have previously mentioned HCl can do some damage to your skin. But why then does it sit harmlessly in your stomach? This is because your stomach is lined with an acid resistant mucus. I say resistant because the mucus does need to be replenished and if it isn't, you start getting ulcers. 

But that mucus ends at your stomach. Your esophagus and your small intestine-the two pieces of your digestive system on either side of your stomach-do not have the mucus. This is why on those mornings after a night of drinking, and therefore a morning wrapped around the toilet, your throat may burn. That is because the acid burns the tissues as it makes a mass exit from your stomach. This is also why people with eating disorders that involve purging often has eroded teeth, gums, and other lesions in their mouth and throat. The continuous passage of acid over those tissues burns them, eventually leading to serious damage. Side note: while HCl can burn your tissues it would be a poor choice if you wanted to dissolve a dead body. 

So what can you do if the acid in your stomach gets to be too much of a problem? Neutralise it of course! What neutralises acids? Bases! Acid + Base = water + salt. This is always. And this is a very important reaction. To neutralise stomach acid, you don't want too strong of a base so sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, will work just fine.  HCl + NaHCO3 = NaCl (the salt) + H2CO3 (carbonic acid) which dissociates (quickly) into H2O (water) and CO2 (carbon dioxide). The CO2 is a gas and this is why taking an antacid may make you gassy. So if you want to buy an antacid, you can. But you can also just use the sodium bicarbonate you have in your cupboard. It is probably in box marked Arm and Hammer Baking Soda.

Do All Bugs Need Drugs? What is An Antibiotic...

The subject of today's entry is "antibiotics". What are they? What do they work on?

When we use the term "antibiotic" generally we are referring to a pharmaceutical drug that kills bacteria. Technically speaking this term could actually apply to any chemical that kills bacteria; however, when you read the term used on say "antibacterial soap" it generally means that some sort of drug is an additive. 

Focusing our discussion down to antibiotics as pharmaceuticals, they are designed to inhibit some part of the bacterial life cycle. Inside a cell, (all cells) there are many complicated biochemical reactions going on. An antibacterial drug is generally designed, or discovered, to inhibit, or change these pathways is some way. Different drugs do different things. Penicillin, and drugs in the penicillin family (generally end in "cillin" eg amoxycillin) prevent bacteria from multiplying. This then allows your body's natural immune system to kill the foreigners. Other antibiotics, clindamyacin, vancomyacin (I may have misspelled these-my apologies), are designed to inhibit different pathways in the bacteria. 

Some antibiotics are stronger than others, possibly targeting many pathways. Some are weaker.   Penicillin is generally weaker, where clindamyacin is quite strong. Usually, you take an antibiotic appropriate for the virulence of the bacterial infection. A simple staph (staphylococcus-the normal skin bacteria) infection isn't going to require a harsh antibiotic like clindamyacin. That particular antibiotic is saved for infections with more robust bacteria that have proven to be resistant to other antibiotics.

Why might this be important? Well don't forget that you have natural bacterial symbiotes that are actually helpful to you. For example, the E. coli bacteria in your intestine are essential for digestion. Taking antibiotics don't just kill the unwanted, interloping bacteria, but will also kill the good ones too. This is one of the side effects of antibiotic use is diarrhea. Yeast infections in women are also common because there are natural bacteria in the vagina and killing them can result in an upset in the balance of the natural fauna, giving yeast a chance to get out of control. Uncomfortable, but treatable.

One thing that all of us need to be diligent about is responsible antibiotic use. By using them inappropriately means that the bacteria will evolve (yes we believe in evolution on this site) and then the antibiotics will no longer be effective. Using antibiotics with a viral infection is one of the common ways to misuse antibiotics. Colds, flus etc. are viruses and therefore antibiotics are not going to work. Soap and hot water is effective enough for the most types of germs that you want off your hands. Alcohol based hand sanitizers are also useful.

Household Cleaners: Chemistry Under the Kitchen Sink

I have recently been asked questions regarding household cleaners, so this entry is designed to answer them as thorough as possible. 

When many people hear the word "chemical" they often picture people in CSI type labs, with fuming beakers, in labs coats and safety glasses, but chemicals are every where. You are made of chemicals, you are dressed in chemicals, and you are eating chemicals. When you consider this much broader definition you can now see how the potential for reaction is everywhere. The main source of chemicals in our homes is generally under kitchen sink: cleansers-that is if you believe in cleaning your house. We can have cleaners for all different types of reasons, which means that the litany of chemicals under your sink can be quite vast (especially if you are a very good friend of mine who treats cleaning her house as a form of exercise and meditative relief-you know who you are) and that means that some of them will be incompatible-or to be more specific they will react. 

Bleach + ammonia = bad! We all have heard this, but why? Household bleach is a 5% solution of sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl, in water.  Window cleaners, like Windex, are made from ammonia: NH3. 

NaOCl + NH3 = NH2Cl + NaOH

NH2Cl-chloramine. This is unstable and explosive. It is also possible to over chlorinate to get NHCl2 and NCl3, which are equally terrible for you. Interesting side note: replacing the chlorine atoms with iodine atoms, it becomes possible to make nitrogen triiodide, NI3. This is a contact explosive and a favourite practical joke among chemists. We use it demos because by touching the stuff with a feather it is possible to make it explode. You can also put it on the underside of a toilet seat, so when someone sits down they are greeted with a large, ear-ring bang. My personal favourite April Fools Day joke is to put it the key holes of doors so that when people insert their key it causes the explosions. (Note: these aren't TNT level structure ruining  explosions, just a loud bang type). 

"Why is ammonia a useful glass cleaner?" Fingerprints are a usual problem on glass. A fingerprint is caused by the oils on your skin, which are made of fatty acids. As the name implies, they are acidic. When the acids react with a base, like ammonia, they are converted to water soluble salts and are washed away. (The free-basing of cocaine hydrochloride uses the same chemical principle to make crack.)

The other household question I got was "why should you where gloves when using CLR?"

CLR removes calcium, lime, and rust. These are all metal based problems and are easily eaten away by an acid. My favourite way of cleaning up calcium blockages in my own lab equipment is using 6 molar hydrochloric acid. A more dilute solution of this is made and packaged and sold to consumers as CLR. But being an acid, it is possible for it to cause burns on your skin, so wearing gloves will protect you skin. 

Why Doesn't Diet Coke Taste as Good as Regular Coke?

This is one of the first questions my sister asked me in her suggestion of writing this blog, so it gets to be the first one answered.

The taste difference between the two arises from the fact that regular Coke is sweetened with sugar, your basic everyday C12H22O11 table sugar. And not just a little, but a lot of sugar. Which is where the calories come from. Diet Coke, on the other hand, is sweetened with an artificial sweetener: aspartame. Aspartame is a modified amino acid that is relatively sweet, but is not absorbed by the body, therefore cannot be used for energy, and thus reduces the number of calories in the pop. Now, while aspartame is sweet, being a different molecule and having a different shape than sugar it does not fit into the same into the taste receptors on your tongue and thus tastes different. Now some people, if you can believe it, actually like the taste of aspartame therefore they think that the Diet Coke actually tastes better. But like my sister, I am partial to sugar so I prefer the full calorie regular Coke. 

 

Ask a Chemist: So it begins...

I am starting this blog at the request of my sister. Science, and specifically chemistry, impacts all our lives in a very important capacity everyday. But many people are unsure of how this chemistry works and when you ask some chemists, or the omnipotent Google, the answers are often rather complex and full of jargon. So this blog is designed to answer your science and chemistry questions without being too technical or condescending. Hopefully I will be able even get some of you realising how awesome chemistry is! So if you have a question, leave me a comment and I will make it the subject of my next post and there you will find your answer!